Henry Murray was an American psychologist who is best
known for his work on personality theory and the development of the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT). He proposed a theory of personality that included the
concept of "needs," which played a central role in his framework.
Murray's system of needs is often referred to as the "needs theory"
or "personology."
Primary and Secondary Needs
Primary Needs
Murray identified a set of primary needs, which he
believed were innate and universal human motivations. These needs include
physiological needs (e.g., hunger, thirst), safety needs (e.g., the need for
security and stability), and social needs (e.g., the need for social
interaction and belonging).
Secondary Needs
In addition to primary needs, Murray proposed secondary
needs, which are learned and developed over time through individual experiences
and interactions with the environment. These secondary needs are more specific
and unique to each individual. They can include the need for achievement,
affiliation, power, and autonomy, among others.
Psychogenic Needs Listing
This is the list of 'psychogenic' needs identified in
Explorations in Personality, edited by Henry A. Murray in 1938. They are
divided into five groups.
1.
Ambition needs:
a. Achievement:
This need refers to the desire to excel, accomplish challenging tasks, and set
and achieve personal goals. People with a high need for achievement are often
driven to succeed and seek recognition for their accomplishments.
b. Exhibition:
The need for exhibition involves a desire for attention, recognition, and
self-expression. Individuals with a high need for exhibition may engage in
behaviors to gain the spotlight or stand out in a crowd.
c. Recognition:
To show achievements to others and gain recognition for these.
2.
Materialistic needs:
a. Acquisition:
To acquire things.
b. Retention:
To keep things that have been acquired.
c. Order:
This need refers to the desire for structure, organization, and predictability
in one's environment. People with a high need for order seek to create and
maintain orderliness in their lives.
d. Construction:
To make and build things.
3.
Power needs:
a. Abasement:
The need for abasement reflects a desire for self-punishment or humiliation. It
can manifest as feelings of guilt or self-blame.
b. Aggression:
This need involves a desire to harm or assert dominance over others. It
represents the aggressive tendencies that some individuals may have.
c. Autonomy:
The need for autonomy reflects the desire for independence, freedom, and
self-determination. Individuals with a high need for autonomy value their
ability to make choices and decisions independently.
d. Blame
avoidance: To not be blamed for things done.
e. Contrariance:
To oppose the attempted persuasion of others.
f.
Deference: To admire a superior person, praising
them and yielding to them and following their rules.
g. Dominance:
To control one's environment, controlling other people through command or
subtle persuasion.
h. Harm
avoidance: To escape or avoid pain, injury and death.
i.
Infavoidance: To avoid being humiliated or
embarrassed.
4.
Status defense needs:
a. Counteraction:
To make up for failure by trying again, pridefully seeking to overcome
obstacles.
b. Defendance:
To defend oneself against attack or blame, hiding any failure of the self.
c. Infavoidance:
To avoid being humiliated or embarrassed.
5.
Affection needs:
a. Affiliation:
The need for affiliation is the desire for social interaction, companionship,
and emotional closeness with others. Individuals with a high need for
affiliation value social relationships and enjoy being part of social groups.
b. Nurturance:
This need pertains to the desire to care for and protect others, particularly
those who are vulnerable or in need of support. People with a high need for
nurturance are often empathetic and compassionate.
c. Play:
To have fun, laugh and relax, enjoying oneself.
d. Rejection:
To separate oneself from a negatively viewed object or person, excluding or
abandoning it.
e. Sex:
To form relationship that lead to sexual intercourse.
f.
Succourance: To have one's needs satisfied by
someone or something. Includes being loved, nursed, helped, forgiven and
consoled.
6.
Information needs:
a. Cognizance:
The need for cognizance is related to the pursuit of knowledge, understanding,
and intellectual exploration. Individuals with a high need for cognizance seek
to expand their understanding of the world.
b. Exposition:
To provide information educate others.
According the Murray, in the course of daily life these
needs are often interrelated. When a single action can satisfy more than one
need, we can say that the needs are fused. However, needs can also come into
conflict. For example, an individual’s need for dominance may make it difficult
to satisfy their need for affiliation, unless they can find someone with a
powerful need for abasement. Such a situation is one of the ways in which
psychologists have tried to understand abusive relationships. In other words,
when someone with a strong need for affiliation and debasement becomes involved
with someone with a strong need for affiliation and dominance (particularly in
a pathological sense), the results can be very unfortunate.
Press
Murray introduced the concept of "press" to
describe situational factors or environmental stimuli that interact with an
individual's needs. Press can either satisfy or frustrate a person's needs,
depending on how well it aligns with their specific needs at a given moment.
So, in the context of Henry Murray's theory of
personality, the term "press" refers to situational or environmental
factors that interact with an individual's psychogenic needs to influence their
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Press can be thought of as the external
circumstances or demands that affect how a person's needs are expressed or
satisfied. Press can be classified into two main types:
·
Alpha Press: Alpha press refers to the
objective or actual environmental factors or events. These are the external
circumstances as they exist in reality.
·
Beta Press: Beta press refers to the
subjective interpretation or perception of the environment by the individual.
It's how the person perceives and apperceives (interprets) the alpha press
based on their own psychogenic needs and personal experiences.
Interaction
According to Murray's theory, a person's behavior and
emotional responses are a result of the interaction between their psychogenic
needs and the press they experience. When the press aligns with or satisfies a
person's needs, it can lead to positive feelings and behaviors. Conversely,
when the press contradicts or frustrates a person's needs, it can lead to
negative emotions and behaviors.
For example, consider the need for achievement. If an
individual with a high need for achievement is presented with a challenging
task (alpha press), they may interpret this task as an opportunity to excel and
demonstrate their competence (beta press). This alignment between their need
and the press can motivate them to work hard and achieve success.
Understanding the concept of press in Murray's theory
helps to explain why people may react differently to the same situation or
stimulus. It highlights the role of individual differences in psychogenic needs
and how these needs interact with the external environment to shape
personality, motivation, and behavior.
Apperception
Murray believed that individuals perceive and interpret
their experiences through the lens of their needs. Apperception refers to the
process of making sense of external stimuli and experiences in a way that is
consistent with one's needs and internal psychological structure.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
To assess individuals' needs and personality, Murray
developed the TAT, a projective psychological test. In the TAT, individuals are
shown ambiguous pictures and asked to create stories about them. The stories
they generate are thought to reveal their underlying needs, motives, and
personality traits.
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a widely used
projective psychological test designed to reveal a person's underlying needs,
motives, and personality traits. Henry Murray, an American psychologist, and
Christiana Morgan, a psychoanalyst, developed the TAT in the 1930s as part of
their work on personality theory and assessment. The TAT is typically
administered by a trained psychologist or clinician.
Here's how the TAT works and some key aspects of the
test:
1. Test
Materials: The TAT consists of a set of 31 cards, each containing a
black-and-white or color picture that depicts a potentially ambiguous or
emotionally charged scene. The scenes may involve people, animals, objects, or
abstract imagery. Some cards are more abstract, while others are more realistic.
2. Administration:
During the TAT assessment, the test taker is presented with a series of cards
one at a time. For each card, they are asked to do the following:
·
Describe what is happening in the picture.
·
Describe what led up to the situation in the
picture.
·
Explain what the characters in the picture are
thinking and feeling.
·
Describe what might happen next.
3. Projective
Technique: The TAT is considered a projective test because it requires the
individual to project their thoughts, feelings, and experiences onto the
ambiguous images presented in the cards. The test relies on the idea that
individuals will project their own concerns, desires, and emotional states onto
the characters and situations in the pictures.
4. Scoring
and Interpretation: After the test, the responses are analyzed for themes,
patterns, and recurring motifs. A trained psychologist or clinician interprets
the individual's narratives to gain insights into their personality, emotions,
conflicts, and underlying psychological needs. Specific themes or motifs that
emerge in the stories can provide information about the individual's motives,
interpersonal relationships, and inner conflicts.
5. Applications:
The TAT has been used in various settings, including clinical psychology,
psychotherapy, and research. It can help clinicians and researchers understand
a person's unconscious thoughts and emotions, explore personality dynamics, and
gain insights into unresolved conflicts.
6. Limitations:
The TAT has faced criticism and debate in the field of psychology. Some critics
argue that it lacks standardized scoring and reliability, making it less
scientifically rigorous than other assessment methods. Additionally, the
subjective interpretation of responses can vary between clinicians.
7. Variations:
Over the years, different versions of the TAT have been developed, each with
its own set of cards and specific purposes. Some variations focus on assessing
specific personality traits or concerns, such as the need for achievement,
affiliation, or power.
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) holds significant
importance in the field of psychology for several reasons:
·
Assessment of Unconscious Processes: One of the
primary contributions of the TAT is its ability to tap into unconscious
thoughts, emotions, and motives. The test relies on the idea that individuals
will project their own unresolved conflicts, desires, and concerns onto the
ambiguous images presented in the cards. This can provide insights into aspects
of a person's personality that may not be readily accessible through
self-report measures or conscious introspection.
·
Exploration of Personality Dynamics: The TAT
allows clinicians and researchers to explore the dynamic and multifaceted
nature of an individual's personality. By analyzing the themes, patterns, and
narratives that emerge from a person's responses to the images, psychologists
can gain a deeper understanding of an individual's unique personality
structure, including their motives, interpersonal relationships, and potential
sources of distress.
·
Clinical Assessment: The TAT has been used in
clinical psychology and psychotherapy to aid in the assessment and treatment of
individuals with various psychological concerns. Clinicians can use the test to
identify underlying issues, conflicts, or traumas that may be contributing to a
person's emotional distress or mental health challenges.
·
Research Tool: In addition to its clinical
applications, the TAT has been used as a research tool in psychology and
related fields. Researchers have employed the test to investigate a wide range
of topics, including personality development, motivation, emotional intelligence,
and the impact of early experiences on adult functioning.
·
Holistic Perspective: The TAT encourages a
holistic perspective on understanding human behavior and motivation. It
recognizes that individuals are complex and multifaceted, and it offers a means
of exploring the emotional and psychological dimensions of a person's life.
·
Contributions to Personality Theories: The TAT
has influenced and contributed to the development of various personality
theories and models. For example, Henry Murray's work on psychogenic needs and
the TAT's role in assessing these needs had a lasting impact on the field of
personality psychology. It also played a role in the development of other
projective techniques and personality assessment tools.
·
Clinical Insights: In clinical settings, the TAT
can provide clinicians with valuable information that can inform treatment
planning and therapeutic interventions. It can help identify areas of concern,
facilitate discussion with clients, and guide therapeutic approaches.
Sources and Additional Information:
http://changingminds.org/explanations/needs/murrays_needs.htm
https://www.verywellmind.com/murrays-theory-of-psychogenic-needs-2795952
